Heuristics Lead to Predictable Biases and Inconsistencies Essay Example for Free

Heuristics Lead to Predictable Biases and Inconsistencies Essay The human brain is complex, most especially as a specimen for study regarding decision-making and problem solving. The brain uses very precise methods of compression in order to distinguish the most important features of a certain sensory data. Because of human error, these methods are not perfect. Humans obtain large numbers of sensory data a day, even terabytes worth to be more precise. Most of what a person sees within the day gets erased from his memory, yet tiny pieces of data remain. These are converted into symbolic format, which would connect to the person’s experiences once he is in contact with it. When the sensory data gets abstracted it then becomes symbolical to the person and taken from long-term memory, certain biasing effects arise. â€Å"Biases also operate when the symbols are invoked and manipulated for cognitive operations. † The results of these are our belief systems, representation and anchoring. Anchoring refers to the process where people form beliefs around an anchor and every incoming data should relate towards that anchor even though significantly irrelevant. Representation â€Å"occurs when people expect their outputs to resemble the generating process.† Yet representation doesn’t prove efficient and always true, and this is due mainly because of human bias. Representation and anchoring are examples of heuristics. They are more commonly described as â€Å"rules of thumb† which humans use in reasoning in cognitively economical ways. These are inscribed in the human brain, and it is the same for all, as we all have a pair of hands and a pair of eyes. Heuristics started in the late 1960s and early 1970s and devised by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman where they focused their studies on human judgment. Heuristics replaced rational judgment and the algorithmic method where they theorized that judgment in uncertainty rests on a limited number of heuristics rather than other more complicated methods. Heuristics became accepted and spread upon almost all forms of knowledge – economics, medicine, law, psychology and political science. This study was revolutionary in its time because â€Å"it simultaneously questioned the descriptive adequacy of ideal models of judgment and offered a cognitive alternative that explained human error without invoking motivated irrationality. † Kahneman and Tversky’s study revolved around the assumption of â€Å"bounded rationality†. In their study, they have also showed that humans indeed are very limited in processing and are probable to erroneous judgment, they attest to the earlier models of judgment where not fit to humans since they are much simpler than what is really happens in human decision making. After wide acceptance and a moving away from the rational decision-making patterns devised in the past, where humans are thought to always choose the best decision by means of probability, Heuristics is still seen to have inconsistencies and laden with biases. The whole concept of Heuristics gives a structured way of problem solving, taking into consideration human brain function and capacity which inevitably makes the process easier. As compared to the old model of thinking where humans are always seen to know probability and choose the best way based on probability computation, Heuristics give a deeper understanding of the human condition. Some failures of heuristics enter when it is presented with data that is not part of its â€Å"domain of expertise† or what is already previously calculated. Biases are a key error in using heuristics for problem solving. A cognitive bias is defined as â€Å"any of a wide range of observer effects identified in cognitive science and social psychology including very basic statistical, social attribution, and memory errors that are common to all human beings. † Biases that are in direct relation to decision making and problem solving affect scientific methods technically designed to eliminate these exact chances of bias. Biases in Heuristics are difficult to notice for three reasons. First, the human thinking process that is used to judge and assess in problem solving is in itself full of biases. Second, biases are common and widespread that it is difficult to notice and third, the decisions that are made through the use of Heuristics feel good therefore it satisfies the person, regardless if it right or wrong. According to a University of Pennsylvania law school research paper, principal findings in behavioral economics and cognitive psychology through the years have shown in studies that humans â€Å"deviate from ideal precepts of rationality in many settings, showcasing inconsistent judgment in the face of framing and other formal manipulations of the presentation of problems.† In their research paper entitled, â€Å"Heuristics and Biases in Thinking About Tax†, they have suggested that citizens especially in the United States suffer from a wide range of biases in the understanding of the basic features of the tax-law design and reform, like the perceptual biases more studied in the domain of the private markets, like the evaluation of â€Å"risky choice† and consumer finances. The main goal of the paper was to show that in evaluating the tax systems present in the country, citizens are vulnerable and exhibit a wide range of Heuristics and biases, which lead to inconsistent judgment and evaluation. Prevalence of these biases show that there is indeed room for â€Å"skillful† politicians and facile political systems to â€Å"manipulate public opinion, and that tax system design will reflect a certain volatility on account of the possibility of eliciting preference reversals through purely formal rhetorical means. † Due to the inconsistencies and biases of Heuristics, decision theorists have studied this phenomenon more closely. It turned into a respected field, founded by of Kahneman and Tversky, commonly known as â€Å"Heuristics and biases.† Heuristics may work well in problem solving, but can also turn to harmful biases. A few examples of heuristics and biases include Framing, which means viewing a need in the real world as a â€Å"problem† you can work on solving and the counterpart bias is mistaking your view of the problem for the real need. Status quo, a heuristic that implies â€Å"Business as Usual† or â€Å"If it ain’t broke don’t fix it† may incur bias against anything new. Cognitive overconfidence is the same as decisiveness and refusal to be haunted by doubt which may lead to the bias of self-delusion. The Heuristic Prudent Estimation means â€Å"conservative estimates† which may lead to missed opportunities which are especially dangerous in group problem solving. Most likely scenario has the Heuristic explanation of avoiding wasting time on possibilities that probably won’t happen, but the bias is rare events can be the most important. Guessing at patterns implies quickly spotting the trend or the big picture, with a corresponding bias of â€Å"Outguessing randomness† and seeing patterns that doesn’t exist. The last example Recall ability or Availability which implies, if an idea doesn’t fit in with the obvious data, it’s surely suspect. The corresponding bias for this is, non-obvious things can be most important or even most common. These examples of Heuristics are common in everyday life, and these rules of thumb do help in assessing situations such as deals in business, economics, or day to day domestic problems. It is common knowledge that these Heuristics can fail predictably, which are also known as â€Å"hidden traps† when a person succumbs to the counterpart bias. It is already a given that Heuristics bring about inconsistencies and biases, but there are some methods of control. For example, for the Heuristic Framing, advice is to not automatically accept initial framing, strive for objective neutral framing, and challenge other people’s framings. These are remedies to biased formed Heuristics, which will generally help in problem solving, whichever stage of the problem the person is at.

Evaluation Of Online Encyclopaedias English Language Essay

Evaluation Of Online Encyclopaedias English Language Essay This report evaluates the capabilities of three online Encyclopaedias: Wikipedia, Free Online Encyclopaedia Britannica and Encyclopaedia Americana. The evaluation is based on the APPARATUS assessment method that are given weights according to their relative importance to search capabilities, contents , used materials references credentials of author(s). The Encyclopaedias are rated based on these the APPARATUS assessment and the ratings tabulated at the end of the report to facilitate comparison. 2. Introduction In this report, we evaluated the APPARATUS assessment of three online Encyclopaedias : Wikipedia, Free Online Encyclopaedia Britannica and Encyclopaedia Americana. The evaluation focus on the following criteria: , Authority Objectivity 2) Purpose 3) Physical Production 4) Arrangement 5) Recency 6) Accuracy 7) Treatment 8) Users 9) Scope These criteria were weighed according to their relative importance to APPARATUS assessment . Ratings from 1 to 4 were assigned to respective features and tabulated. Wikipedia Wikipedia is an online free-content encyclopaedia that users can edit and contribute to.   Jimmy Wales, wikipedia co-founder, has pronounced Wikipedia as an effort to create and distribute a multilingual free encyclopaedia of the highest quality to every single person on the planet in his or her own language. Wikipedia is to bring knowledge to everyone who seeks it. Britannica Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica has been the worlds most valued reference source for over two centuries. Today Britannica provides a variety of products, intended to fit different users needs.If users want the full 32-volume Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, an encyclopaedia for younger users, or educational teaching materials, Britannica provides an appropriate resource with features and enhancements. Encyclopaedia Americana Americana is one of the largest general encyclopaedias in the English language. Following the acquisition of Grolier in 2000, the encyclopaedia has been produced by Scholastic. It has articles on natural and exact sciences, on engineering and economics, in addition to on separate works of literature, music, and art. Many articles in the encyclopaedia are written from anti-Marxist and anti-communist viewpoints. As a rule it contains instructive articles, but there are also analysis articles most often about separate countries and centuries-for example, the articles The 18th Century and The 20th Century. Authority and Objectivity Wikipedia Wikipedia is an online free-content encyclopaedia that users can edit and contribute to. Jimmy Wales, wikipedia co-founder, has pronounced Wikipedia as an effort to create and distribute a multilingual free encyclopaedia of the highest quality to every single person on the planet in his or her own language. Wikipedia is to bring knowledge to everyone who seeks it. Wikipedia articles are all free content and their text is covered by the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and in most cases the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL). The Wikimedia Foundation does not own copyright on Wikipedia article texts and illustrations. It is purposeless to email our contact addresses asking for approval to copy articles or images, even if rules at users company or school or organization order that user ask web site operators before copying their content. The only Wikipedia content users should contact the Wikimedia Foundation about is the trademarked Wikipedia/ Wikimedia logos, which will not be freely usable without permission. Wikipedia is available in languages other than English. Wikipedia has more than two hundred and eighty languages, including a Simple English version, and related projects include a dictionary, books, and scientific reference sources, quotations manuals and a news service (see sister projects). All of these are maintained, updated, and managed by separate communities, and often include information and articles that can be hard to find through other common sources. Britannica The editorial board is organized more than four thousand expert contributors, and the articles are written and continuously updated by a hundred full time editors. The authors, compilers, and editors are coming from different backgrounds like Nobel Laureates or Pulitzer Prize winners, expecting writers, artists, civil servants, scholars and activists. Some contributors in the record of the Britannica include Freud, Russell, Marie Curie, Einstein, Huxley and Shaw. Nowadays, the contributors are professors and domain experts in specific areas from Oxford, Harvard, Yale, University of Chicago and other reputable universities. Some contributors introduced their personal negative opinion on topics such as Hinduism so that the articles on Britannica have some cultural bias. A quote of the 11th edition will better help to understand these biases. The 9th edition onwards, the Britannica was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English language encyclopaedias especi ally because of its broad coverage and distinct or outstanding authors. Encyclopaedia Americana All articles are signed by the author, a leading authority in his/her field, chosen by a team of editors and advisors. Americana is one of the largest general encyclopaedias in the English language. This series has more than 45000 articles, most of them more than 500 words and many running to considerable length (the United States article is over 300,000 words). The works coverage of American and Canadian geography and history has been a traditional strength. The Encyclopaedia Americana is written by over 6000 contributors, and most articles are signed by their contributors. Controversial subjects are included with several references for abortion, homelessness, and homosexuality. The editors have striven for a balanced and objective viewpoint on all topics. Purpose Wikipedia Wikipedias purpose is to benefit readers by acting as an encyclopaedia, a comprehensive written compendium that includes information on all branches of knowledge. The goal of Wikipedia is to build a free encyclopaedia; indeed, the largest encyclopaedia in history, not only in terms of breadth but also in terms of depth and also want Wikipedia to be a reliable resource. The purpose of an encyclopaedia is to gather knowledge spread around the globe; to express its general system to the men with whom we live, and broadcast it to those who will come after us, so that the work of prior centuries will not become useless to the centuries to come; and so that our children, becoming better instructed, will at the same time become more worthy and happy, and that wiki cannot die without having provided a service to the human race. Many visitors come to Wikipedia to acquire knowledge, while others come to share knowledge. At this very moment, dozens of articles are being superior, and new articl es are also being created. Britannica The purpose of the online encyclopaedia Britannica is to be an excellent reference and to provide academic materials to students and researchers. For academic institutions, libraries, and corporations, Britannica provides Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online, a wealth of trusted, wide-ranging resources intended especially for serious researchers. This widely varied set of powerful resources makes Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online an essential addition to every academic, corporate, and research library. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online School Edition presents Britannicas renowned educational resources in a student-friendly and engaging site designed especially for teachers and elementary, middle, and high school students. This unique resource brings together three encyclopaediasEncyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Britannica Student Encyclopaedia, and Britannica Elementary Encyclopaediato meet the needs of a variety of reading levels. In addition, a section specifically for teachers provides wor ksheets to support effective use of the Internet in the classroom. Encyclopaedia Americana The corporate purpose of Scholastic is to encourage the intellectual and personal growth of all children, beginning with literacy, the cornerstone of all learning. As well as more than 90 years of experience supporting the learning lives of children, today Scholastic remains committed to providing quality, engaging educational content in digital and print formats for the next generation of learners, and the families and educators who guide them. This encyclopaedia is intended for use as a general reference resource in schools, colleges, and public libraries. No American bias is detected. Physical production Wikipedia As for the largest Wikipedia, which is the English version, it includes around 3.8 million articles. All these documents are only in electronic format. Another feature of the toolbox is the Printable version. Use it whenever users want to print articles for a printer-friendly version of the article. Browsers (eg.Mozilla Firefox or Internet Explore) that will be familiar with the media print will automatically apply the printable version when printing with the default Mono book style sheet. There are more than 8000 active contributors working on more than 19 million articles which is a really large number of articles. It can compare to another project by the cofounder of Wikipedia called Citizendum. Its the short for of citizen compendium and is another online encyclopaedia project with tighter editing rules and higher reliability due to a close interaction between authors and editors. This means that Citizendum contains more reliable information but way less content (about 16 thousan d articles). Britannica Britannica usually prints a new set of the tomes every two years, but 2010s 32-volume set will be its last. Instead, the company will focus only on its digital encyclopaedia and education tools. The online version of the encyclopaedia, which was first published in 1994, represents only 15% of Britannicas revenue. The other 85% is sales of education products: online learning tools, curriculum products and more. Encyclopaedia Britannica brings to sudden stop of print publication after 244 years. The print version of the Britannica was considerably more expensive than its competitors. In general, the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated. Encyclopedia Americana Today, each year Americana released more than 600 titles for readers of all ages(0-18), in a variety of print and digital formats. Since 1926, when Scholastic published its first collection, Saplings, the Company has continued to release award-winning and best-selling books, ranging from beautifully-rendered titles for tots to holding reads that fascinate global audiences. Among those 600 are the amazingly successful publishing properties like Harry Potter, and Captain Underpants, Goosebumps, The 39 Clues, the beloved series Clifford the Big Red Dog, I Spy, Bone, Fly Guy, Dear America, Geronimo Stilton, The Magic School Bus, and The Hunger Games trilogy. The list of authors and illustrators consists of Tedd Arnold, Blue Balliett, Jim Benton, Meg Cabot, Patrick Carman, Suzanne Collins, Christopher Paul Curtis, Gordon Korman, Cynthia Lord, Ann M. Martin, Jon J Muth, Dav Pilkey, J.K. Rowling, Matthew Reinhart, Pam Muà ±oz Ryan, Allen Say, Brian Selznick, David Shannon, Jeff Smith, Magg ie Stiefvater, Mark Teague, and Walter Wick, among others a diverse list representing titles that span themes, ages, and geographies. Scholastic Trade division also publishes licensed properties such as Star Wars, Rainbow Magic, Its Happy Bunny, Lego, Chuggington, and Bob Books. Scholastic books have a reputation for gathering accolades and awards (including Caldecott Medals, National Book Awards, Newbery Medals, and Coretta Scott King Awards) and topping bestseller lists year upon year, and include memorable titles and series like The Adventures of Super Diaper Baby, The Invention of Hugo Cabret, No, David!, Allie Finkles Rules For Girls, How Do Dinosaurs Say Good Night?, Amulet, Star Wars: A Pop-Up Guide to the Galaxy, Wonderstruck, Smile, The Underland Chronicles, The Baby-sitters Club, Owen Mzee, The Guardians of GaHoole series, Chasing Vermeer, Charlie Bone, Zen Shorts, and the Shiver trilogy. Nearly ten years later, on July 21, 2007, Scholastic published the much-anticipated seventh and final book in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, making publishing history with a record-breaking 8.3 million copies sold in the U.S. in the first 24 hours. More than 140 million copies of the Harry Potter books are in print in the United States; more than 400 million copies have sold worldwide. Arrangement Wikipedia Wikipedia has a good starting point at the summary of a topic, but its greatest value is its links to outside sources. As for Britannica, its a pathetic shadow of its old treeware self. Wikipedia also has many portals, which categorize content around topic areas; our best portals are collected as featured portals. Articles can be found using the search box on the top-right side of the screen. A representative article contains a main page, titled on the definite topic (I.e., UNESCO) and a second page is accessible to discuss the topic with other users. These pages can be read, edited or one can access the editing history. On the main article page, there is a short introduction on the topic, organized by a table of content that work as hyperlinks. To display articles, users can type a search in the search field or browse through the lists that include lists of countries and territories, of people, by nationality, by occupation. It also has alphabetical indexes sorted by the first two l etters of the title modified by subject or special categories. Each subpart includes an edit button so everything can be edited. Paragraphs contain several hyperlinked terms to further extend the information someone can get on the topic or related issues. The last part of the page is a list of reference, then external links and related articles. One of the lesser users known, especially useful, techniques for researching with Wikipedia is the effective use of the What links here link which is on the left side of the screen, as the first item in the box marked toolbox. This link will contribute users a complete list of other Wikipedia articles that link to the current article. Even if the article user are looking at is a stub or, more extraordinarily, if it is a blank article, several related articles may be easily accessible through this feature. Sometimes these backward links will show users ways in which the article users started from is incomplete in one area or another. An inter esting feature is a list of timelines (centuries, decades or the major events in a given year). It is remarkable to mention that there is no advanced search option but only a single option less normal search. Changes can be viewed at the recent changes page and a random page at random articles. Over 3,500 articles have been designated by the Wikipedia community as featured articles, exemplifying the best articles in the encyclopaedia. Another 15,000 articles are designated as good articles. Some information on Wikipedia is organized into lists; the best of these are designated as featured lists. Britannica The Britannica includes 33 volumes. It separated into three main sections; volumes from 1-12 (Micropedia) which covered the short articles set (less than 750 words) that focuses on ready reference questions. Volumes from13-29 (Macropedia) containing longer articles (2+ pages) with more in-depth information. Volume 30 (Propedia), a one volume covers 10parts of knowledge (Matter and energy, The Earth and life on it, Human life, Human society, Arts, Technology, Religion, History of mankind, and Branchesof Knowledge) , this volume summaries of contains all human knowledge.  The topic in each section in (Micropedia, Macropedia) arranged alphabetically letter by letter. This Britannica is connected with facebook, twitter, youtube, newsletters, RSS, Widgets. When I browsed through the articles, each EB article was overwhelmed by as many as 8 Airtel ads per page, depending on the length of the article/page. If users would like to avoid ads, sign up for a subscription form. There is a norma l search and an advanced search. If we want to narrow down or broaden the results, the advanced search option uses Boolean operator like AND, OR, NOT, using other options. In the field of research tools users can change different options such as:  compare countries, this day in history, timeline, world atlas, world data analyst. There is also a spotlight section, where we can see the special features of the encyclopaedia. Each list has its own features, so for the videos, images audio list, the requested result is displayed including naturally images, audio recordings and video files so that user can comprehend the topic more easily. Users can contribute to their browsing history, relating articles in terms of type, description, date, and contributor. Users can get information about the primary contributors and other contributors in the list of contributor. It is also possible to browse a dictionary or thesaurus to search the meaning of words. In the last part, widgets shows info rmation of history of event and people related to the requested article and various date. The results are also displayed like a table of contents, where users can conveniently select the sub-menu of their choice for a more efficient browsing. An interesting feature is that the author of the article can give his or her purpose to the readers. Indeed, the online encyclopaedia Britannica academic edition have got the teachers choice award, 2007 2008 SIIA CODiE winner because of its structured and organized contents, secure environment for internet research, and  «Ã‚  neutral perspectives  Ã‚ » (as we mentioned this neutral perspective is subject to discussion).   Encyclopaedia Americana Articles are composed of alphabetically, using the word-by-word system. If two or more articles have the same heading they are ordered by person, place, and thing. Each entry begins with a large bold-faced heading, and may be further sub-divided by smaller bold-faced sub-headings. Longer articles include a contents box for quicker searching, with an information highlights box. Cross-references may be provided in the text or at the end of  article. A bibliography is included at the end of an article when appropriate. Users can choose among five customized interfaces that meet specialized needs and the reading and interest levels of the user. The five interfaces are: 1) Elementary School interface 2) Middle School interface 3) High School interface 4) Adult Patron interface 5) Librarians/Educators interface. Each interface composes of features and returns search results based on reading levels tied to three core differentiated domains: Elementary School, Middle School, and High Schoo l/Adult Patron. A pronunciation key and a list of abbreviations used in the encyclopaedia are included at the beginning of each volume. Recency (Currentness) Wikipedia In October 2012, there are editions of Wikipedia in 285 languages. It has become the largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet, standing sixth globally among all websites on Alexa and having an estimated 365 million readers worldwide. In 2011, Wikipedia received an estimated 2.7 billion monthly page views from the United States alone. Wikipedia has taken a great deal of criticism in the press for problems relating to the trustworthiness of its authors and its general responsibility. Britannica Many people know Britannica as the publisher of those big multivolume encyclopaedias that have been a source of joy and learning since 1768. Today that encyclopaedia is chiefly to be found in a multitude of digital forms that are updated daily. The online encyclopaedia Britannicas home page is updated every day with the breaking news and revised articles from New York Times. Britannica also marks the contribution of users by presenting the comments they left on articles. The updating of the content is subject to the editorial boards policy. The updating are quite fast and the content is revised more regularly than the printed version. Now Britannia is also available as Online School Edition, so its not completely behind Wikipedia. Today this Britannica extremely expanded with schools, parents, and educators, designing products for the 21st-century classroom and todays home learning environments. Britannica is a creator in digital education, and their products are marked by engaging a nd reliable content. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc, have announced that it will stop publishing its 32-volume print edition (retail value $1400) after 244 years, and instead focus on its digital versions. The Encyclopaedia Britannica is a general knowledge book brought out first in three volumes in 1768 by three people. Encyclopaedia Americana Today, Scholastic is the largest publisher and distributor of childrens books in the world, with a collection of titles that entertain and support childrens wide-ranging interested and stages of reading development. Whether its a graphic novel or a board book, a future dystopian setting or a look back in history, our books help young readers explore their imaginations and become lifelong lovers of books. Information is up-to-date for the time of publication. Accuracy Wikipedia Wikipedia has taken a number of positive steps to help develop and maintain the accuracy and objectivity of Wikipedia entries. Its important to note that Wikipedia articles are in a state of constant flux and there is the potential for vandalization. Wikipedia with an open nature has directed to various concerns, such as the quality of writing, the amount of vandalism and the accuracy of information. Some articles have unconfirmed or unreliable information, although a 2005 investigation in Nature presented that the science articles they compared came close to the level of accuracy of Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica and had a similar rate of serious errors. Wikipedia had a rule against using original research that some claim discourages participation by scholars and experts. Nevertheless, those same scholars and experts are able to participate in the writing of articles and linking to supporting documents on the web. Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales has always maintained that the service and its community are set up a self-policing and self-cleaning nature that is supposed to ensure its articles are accurate. Britannica Since the articles are written by professors and experts from in their respective fields we can confidently conclude that the content is accurate. It also is satisfactorily up-to-date. The sentence structure is also organized very well. In a press release, Jorge Cauz, President Encyclopaedia Britannica says Britannica Online includes abundant information along with gorgeous multimedia, and that makes it an excellent match for Bharti Airtels broadband service. There are eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts, in the articles but users can find a series of factual errors, omissions or misleading statements. Wikipedia had 162 such problems, while Britannica had 123. The averages are 2.92 mistakes per article for Britannica and 3.86 for Wikipedia. Britannica came out looking a little bit more accurate than Wikipedia. the error rate for each encyclopaedia was not insignificant, and added that he thinks such numbers demonstrate that broad review of encycl opaedia articles is needed. Britannica is more reliable than Wiki. However, the content is not necessarily in-depth. While searching for Singapore, the article does not mention the Marina Bay Sands or who the president is. In comparison, the recent marriage of Prince William is largely covered. Encyclopaedia Americana The 30 volume publication contains tens of thousands of articles written to serve the educational community as a bridge between the general reader and the specialist. Articles are accurately presented in easy to understand language, and are aimed at all learners and educators, from the young student to teachers and librarians. When an author is chosen to write an article, he/she is reminded that the objective of the publication is to present facts and interpretations to the non-specialist reader, as well as explain technical terms in an understandable manner. Before publication, each article is reviewed by the editors to ensure accuracy of information and vocabulary, spelling and sentence structures that it satisfies these objectives. In the new edition, the Editor has make an afforded to limit the work to its legal purpose the presentation of knowledge with faithfulness and with scholarly objectivity, avoiding the promotion of theories and such discussions and protections as are wh olly strange to the character and nature of an encyclopaedia. Every effort has been made to protect not only accuracy of statement but also fairness and correctness of view. Treatment Wikipedia The editing guidelines also mention a manual of style that provides detailed guidance to help editors to use a reliable, clear and exact language and layout. It is recommended to avoid jargon or vague or unnecessarily complex wording. Usually if any jargon or concept is used in an article, it will be hyperlinked to the matching Wikipedia page on this term. Regarding as the importance of the term, it finally attains a Wikipedia article of its own, which is nearly always linked to. It is usually clarified with more known terms. There is no range of English specification except for quotations, proper names, titles of works such as books, films, or songs where the original spelling must be kept. Articles on precise comparison of variety of English can feature different spellings. In addition, the guidelines mention that several citation styles are possible, namely the main recognized styles such as APA or MLA. The users can also give a rate the article according to its perceived trustwor thiness, objectivity, completeness and whether it was well-written, the user can also mention whether users are knowledgeable on the topic . Britannica As this encyclopedia have for many years, by cooperating with experts, scholars, educators, instructional designers, and user-experience specialists; by subjecting their work to hard editorial review; and by combining it all into learning products that are useful, reliable, and enjoyable. Each edition of the Britannica is written and updated by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,400 contributors. It is regarded as one of the most scholarly of English language encyclopaedias and remained roughly the same size for the past 70 years, consisting of 40 million words on a half-million different topics. The current 15th edition, published in 2010, consists of 32 volumes a two-volume index, a 12 volume Micropaedia, and a 17 volume Propaedia. The online edition costs a lot less, with a basic subscription running at $17 per year or $1.99 per month, compared to $1,395 for the 32-volume print version. The company has been providing online editions of its encyclopaedia for 20 years, wit h more than 65% of its online sales coming from educational institutions; the online edition is updated continually. The goal is to expand its appeal to consumers. With that move, Britannica is taking on Wikipedia. Although publication has been based in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has maintained British spelling. Its three-volume first edition was published in 1768-71 in Edinburgh, Scot. In subsequent editions it grew in size and reputation. The most famous editions include the ninth (1875-89), known as the scholars encyclopaedia, and the 11th (1910-11), which, with contributions from more than 1,500 experts of world reputation, was also the first to divide the usually long treatises into more specified articles. The current edition, the 15th (1974, with a major revision in 1985), exemplified a new structure, dividing the major articles from the shorter ones. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica now also appears in CD-ROM and on-line versions. A series of ownership changes le ad to its purchase by American publishers in 1901; since the 1940s it has been published in Chicago. Almost all articles are written in simple and widespread way, but particularly for the science and technology, users can see technological jargons, as this is addressed more to the educated users. It uses MLA and APA citation styles. Encyclopedia Americana The index also lists thousands of entries for which there are no separate articles, but does provide listings of articles that cover the subject. In all cases, volume and page numbers are provided for easy look-up. In 1902 a new version in 16 volumes that carried over some of the old material was published under the title Encyclopaedia Americana, under the editorial supervision of Scientific American magazine. The magazines editor, Frederick Converse Beach, was editor-in-chief, to be assisted by hundreds of famous scholars and authorities who served as consulting editors or authors. The first publisher was R.S. Peale Co; between 1903 and 1906 further editions were issued by the Americana Corp. and the Scientific American Compiling Department, with George Edwin Rines appointed managing editor in 1903. The relationship with Scientific American was terminated in 1911. From 1907 to 1912, the work was published as The Americana. A major new edition appeared in 1918-20 in 30 volumes, with George Edwin Rines as editor-in-chief. An Annual or Yearbook was also published each year beginning in 1923 and continuing until 2000.The sentence structure is very simple with easy understanding vocabulary. The meaning and simple sentence structure can clarify the complexity of expressed thoughts. It seldom use jargons words in the Americana. User Wikipedia Wikipedia aims to be user friendly and accessible to all. The main resource is in English but if the user doesnt speak English, he or she can access it in another language, though the content will be more limited. The English text of the CC-BY-SA and GFDL licenses is the only legally binding restriction between authors and users of Wikipedia content. What follows is our interpretation of CC-BY-SA and GFDL, as it pertains to the rights and obligations of users and contributors. Britannica The online encyclopaedia Britannica is a general encyclopaedia so that it is not only targeted to the intellectual levels such as students, teachers, librarians, and administrators but also targeted the kids. The Britannica websites are general audience sites, intended for Users (visitors and subscribers) of all ages. If a user is a California resident, he/she is entitled to prevent sharing of his/her personal information with third parties for his/her own marketing purposes through a cost-free means. If users send a request to Britannica Customer Service, Britannica will provide users with a California Customer Choice Notice that they may use to opt-out of such information sharing. Now all Airtel Broadband customers in India can take a 2 year free subscription to Encyclopaedia Britannica (worth Rs.6575). Specifically, there are three models for them: students encyclopaedia (age 11 and above), childrens encyclopaedia (age 8-11), and thesaurus and dictionary. In the latter, articles t o be browsed are subjects related to their curriculum. EB is absolutely the biggest authoritative resource of information with over 100 million users. Users are able to visit many of website pages without informing who they are or revealing any information about themselves. Users contin

Conflict and Harmony in The Tempest Essay -- Tempest essays

Conflict and Harmony in The Tempest   Ã‚  Ã‚   William Shakespeare describes a 'utopic' world saturated with supernatural images and ideas which works to create the mysterious island where The Tempest takes place.   This is one of Shakespeare's best examples of how a natural harmony reveals itself through the actions of discourse and confusion.   To illustrate this idea best one must examine the historical context upon which The Tempest is based.   Because this play was published in the early 1600s, controversial cultural and political events undoubtedly surface.   Furthermore, by analyzing the sub-plots in the play, the reader has a better understanding of Shakespeare's purpose for including multi-plots, which is to create conflicts that all have a different context but coexist to create a more natural harmony.  Ã‚   Finally, one must recognize that the moral conflict that characters face in The Tempest is crucial in understanding the harmony that is created.   For example, it is important to realize tha t although the play ends with reconciliation for most of the characters, it does not have the same effect on all of the characters.   Therefore, by examining the effects of the historical context, the inclusion of sub-plots, and the importance of moral conflict the reader may take a more comprehensive approach in understanding how Shakespeare finds a harmonious closure in The Tempest.      In 1623, The Tempest made its debut in Shakespeare's First Folio of works (Hirst 36).   Historically, this play is different from Shakespeare's later plays in that he divides it into acts and scenes and leaves the island nameless (Hirst 36).   In other plays such as Twelfth Night and Merchant of Venice, where the same natural harmony is ultimately c... ... F. (Ed.) Shakespeare: Modern Essays in Criticism.   New York: Oxford, 1957. Hatch, James V. Black Theater, U.S.A.: 45 Plays by Black Americans, 1847-1974.   New York: The Free Press, 1974. Hay, Samuel A. African American Theatre: An Historical and Critical Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Hill, Errol (ed). The Theatre of Black Americans: A Collection of Critical Essays. New York: Applause Theatre Book Publishers, 1987. Hill, Errol. Shakespeare in Sable: A History of Black Shakespearean Actors. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press,   1984. Marshal, Herbert and Mildred Stock. Ira Aldridge: The Negro Tragedian. Rockcliff: London, 1958. Hirst, David.   Notes on The Tempest.   London: Ginn, 1969. Vaughan, Alden T. and Virginia Mason Vaughan. Shakespeare's Caliban: A Cultural History.   New York: Cambridge, 1991.

Platos The Republic †Should We Search for the Truth? Essay -- Philos

Plato's Republic – Should We Search for the Truth? There is the common belief that what we experience as reality is just a mere illusion of the truth. Plato's allegory of the cave in "The Republic" describes human beings as being chained in a cave, such that they cannot move but are forced to face a wall, onto which shadows of puppets and themselves are projected. They are deceived into believing that their reality is composed of these "shadows" when actually, the world of truth is the "light" outside the cave. This analogy insinuates the probability that we have been entertaining "false notions" about life, and all our beliefs, ranging from religion to the sciences, are merely representations of the truth. What is this "light" that burns so bright in Plato's eyes? Are we certain that it exists? Because for all we know, life might be nothing but the cave itself. Plato appears certain of what the "light" beyond the cave will reveal to the one who has made the journey out. Firstly it will provide a means of illumination that will expose the "real existence" of the world. In the brightness of the "light", everything would be seen in their full beauty instead of the vague impressions shadows create. He would receive accurate information about life and therefore dispense with the need to discern between the truth and the lie. Furthermore, he would also see himself in his own "proper place". He would no longer be confused about his identity, role in society or purpose in life, and could then carry out his duties confidently and effectively. Secondly the "light" itself also symbolizes the "idea of good". Since it is mentioned in the allegory that if one were to act "rationally", he would need to rely on the "idea of good". It ca... ...tion we receive from life. In this case of the allegory, Plato is working on a whole plane of uncertainty as he is neither able to determine the existence of a different reality nor disprove the credibility of our lives. The world as we know it is indeed imperfect but imperfection should not qualify it as being false. Should we stop all things and embark on the intellectual ascent to the truth? Philosophically, yes. For according to Plato it would be better to "endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their manner". However it is questionable if the need for knowledge of the truth (which might not even exist) is great enough to justify a journey in search for it. This is a decision we have to make for ourselves. Works Cited Plato. Republic. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. 8 Jan. 2001. http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/writing/ccwp11/allegory.htm.

Diverse Australian Biomes Adapting :: Adaptation Australia Essays

Diverse Australian Biomes Adapting Australia is a land of rather extreme weather conditions and widely diverse climates that force the vegetation living there to adapt in many interesting ways. Australia is the driest continent, and biomes such as grasslands and savannas are prime sources of widespread catastrophic fires. The plants that grow in the vast arid and semi-arid regions of Australia are prone to fires simply because of the desert climates that they grow in. High temperatures combined with low fuel moisture contents, little humidity and drying winds that sweep across the landscape encourage many of the plants living in these areas to burst into flames at fairly frequent intervals. Serotinous cones, protective bark, intricate underground recovery systems, unique seed distributions and even the necessity of fire for reproduction are just some of the amazing ways that the major plant families which grow in these fire-prone areas have learned to adapt to their environments. History of fires in Australia Australia is currently the driest continent in the world and has a vast history of fire to prove it. Bushfires in the Adelaide Hills were first described and recorded in 1827, and have occurred at frequent intervals since that time. Fire weather can reach extremes in places such as Rudall River National Park in NW Western Australia. Temperatures are often above 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit), dew points can drop to —37 degrees Celsius, and the winds, uninhibited by trees, can reach speeds of 50-60 km/h (31-37 mph) at any given time in the year. The fuels there may appear to be completely dead, and gaps between plants may be a meter or more (Gill, 1995). In 1966 a massive fire at Brooyar, Queensland had flame heights of 20-25 meters (65-82 feet). In addition to being devastating, the fires are also very unpredictable. A bushfire in the Baulkham Hills in January of 1975 completely destroyed property and some homes, while leaving others untouched. Serious fires occur in the Dandenog Ranges at frequent intervals, and housing there has always been a difficult problem with fire control [3]. Fire has also been used for centuries as an important tool for land management (O’Neill, 1993). Necessary Conditions For Fire Plants that grow in the vast arid and semi-arid regions of Australia are prone to fires simply because of the desert climate they grow in. High temperatures, low fuel moisture contents, little humidity and drying winds that sweep across the landscape encourage small patches of plants to burst into flames.

High School Start Times

Abstract The debate of what time should high school start has been at large over the past couple decades. Some schools are willing to try the later start time and some are not. Research and studies of schools that start later have proven many positive opportunities for high school students. The later start times will help reduce the risk of sleep deprivation, depression, and other health concerns amongst teens. It will also help reduce absences, increase their school performance, and allow students to get the recommended amount of sleep that their bodies need.My sources include case studies of schools that have tried the later time and research of teenager sleep patterns. As children get older their school time starts earlier every few years. Elementary school’s average a start time around 9:45 a. m. , middle school at 8:00 a. m. , and high school at 7:30 a. m. However, as children get older they usually stay up later because if technology and their bodies being capable of sta ying awake longer resulting in a lesser amount of sleep than is required.With delaying the start time for high school students there is the opportunity to improve grades, reduce the risk of depression, and reduce the risk of sleep deprivation. The issue of school start times has been moiled over for many years now. Schools that have always started early may be skeptical to switching their start time even though research has proved that later start times can be beneficial to the students. Once schools try a later start time for a period of time many keep it because it has so many positive opportunities for the high school students.The later start time not only has proved positive amongst the students, but also among the parents. One study conducted in the Minneapolis School district surveyed and found that, after one year, 92% of parents indicated that they preferred the later start times (2004). Many people are skeptical at first of the switch but if you look at the research and stu dies done, it is obvious that the benefits far outweigh the negatives of a later start time. As stated, when children get older they tend to stay awake longer however they do not understand that they are at risk of sleep deprivation.Sleep deprivation is an overall lack of the necessary amount of sleep. When kids have sleep deprivation they have symptoms that include but are not limited to impairments in mood, attention and memory, behavior control, quality of life, lower academic performances and decreased motivation to learn (2010). Children don’t understand the results of staying up the extra hour to watch a television show or play a video game. The effects are potentially much worse than just everyday mood and academic performance. Sleep deprivation can also cause kids to become unhealthier.This results in an increased risk of weight gain, lack of exercise, and lack of stimulants. Overall, sleep deprivation could cause children to potentially ruin their school career which could affect their future chances of getting into college. The easy argument to avoid sleep deprivation is to make kids go to bed earlier. However, today children have more video games, televisions, and phones in their bedrooms than prior years making it much harder for kids to go to sleep once in their room. The average teenager will stay up for an additional hour every night causing them to lose a total of one night’s sleep over a period of a week (2012).Telling your children to go to bed earlier and even making them get into their beds won’t force them to go to sleep due to modern technology. Also, studies on adolescent sleep patterns show that for biological reasons, teenagers generally cannot go to sleep earlier than 11 p. m. (1999). This also makes it quite difficult for teens to get in bed early enough to sleep the required amount for optimal health and wellness, which is between 8 to 10 hours, especially when the students have to wake up and be at school so ea rly.By pushing school back an hour would allow students to have a better chance of decreasing their chance of getting sleep deprivation. Starting an hour or two later than the average start time would allow high school students to get a full night sleep, thus affecting their overall performance in school and enabling them to make better grades. Evidence has shown that adequate sleep improves performance on a variety of tests of memory, concentration, problem solving and attention, as well as reducing depression and irritability (2004).When allowing children to have a full night sleep it sets them up for future endeavors and is more realistic of a schedule compared to the average adult having a nine to five job. This would be an ideal way to get them in a routine for life outside of school and provide ample opportunity to do better in school. When making the change from starting school from the original start time to an hour later there would be several changes a family could have to make to their everyday schedule.While kids who have the opportunity to take the bus to school should not be inconvenienced by the time change it would affect those who live outside the school district. For these children who have to get a ride to school every day may need to find an alternate mode of transportation due to their parents work schedule. Also parents with non-regular schedules may have to find alternative modes of transportation for their kids. This could also become an inconvenience if there are no friends or family available to help to transport.Changing the start time may become a hassle for the parents and making it almost impossible to get their kids to school on time. While most kids do well in school, generally it is those who study harder that have the better grades. While studying harder could be an answer to getting better grades, as it has been proven, studying harder won’t make kids focus and concentrate better in school. If students could take in mo re information during class, it would result in a better understanding of school lessons and conclude to a better academic performance.Being late to the first class of the day or even missing it completely is something that occurs frequently amongst high school students. Missing that first class can hurt a child’s grade and GPA which is very important during high school. Starting school later, even a half hour later, will allow students an adequate amount of time to get themselves ready and be at school on time. Teachers from a Rhode Island school who tried the later school time reported a 36% decrease in absences or tardiness for the first class of the day (2010).Dr. Robert Vorona said â€Å"Beyond the impact on driving, early start times probably affect other areas calling for research on how they affect teenagers’ moods, tardiness, and academic performance (Holohan, 2013). † Many studies and researchers have proved that having early school start times increas es the amount of absences and tardiness amongst the students. Thus by delaying the start time will reduce the number of students tardy or absent and also allow them to have a better chance of passing their early morning classes.Some people might think that being absent or late is the fault of the student or their parent. They may think that students should still be able to wake up and get to school on time even with an early school time. Many factors play into this though. Students could have fallen asleep late making it difficult to wake up, missed their alarm, or even missed the bus because of waking up late. Some students have parents who are already at work when they wake up to get ready in the morning. Not having a parent at home in the morning can be ough on a child and make it difficult for them to get out of bed. This makes it very easy for a child to sleep in and miss class. It is easy to say that students should get to school on time but there are many different factors th at go into a morning routine that allow, or don’t allow, students to make it to school on time. During high school, students are more likely to experience some type of depression due to relationships, athletics, schoolwork, etc. A major contributor to depression would be having a lack of sleep.A school in Providence Rhode Island tested students when they started school at 8:00 and when they started at 8:30. They found that by having an extra half hour of sleep the number of students that had depression decreased a significant amount from 66% to 45%. Judy Owens, who conducted the study, stated â€Å"A modest start time delay was associated with a significant increase in self-reported sleep duration and a decrease in a number of daytime sleepiness. Perhaps more importantly, students rated themselves as less depressed and more motivated to participate in a variety of activities† (2010).Depression can weigh a kid down and not allow them to do well in school. It is importan t for high school students to get their sleep because about 50% of high school students can drive. A study was done between two high schools that had an hour and twenty minute difference in start time. The school that started later had 41% less crashes than the school that started earlier. The researchers concluded that the students from the school which started earlier were sleep deprived and resulted in them driving more recklessly than the students who started school later.When looking at driving compared to sleep it becomes a more serious issue and this is because there are other people’s lives at risk other than the person who is sleep deprived. Not only does this issue of school start time greatly influence a student’s education but more importantly it plays a factor in their physical wellbeing as they drive to school each morning. A small private high school in Providence, Rhode Island conducted a pilot study that confirms many of the benefits of delayed school start times. A study conducted by Judy Owens, MD, a sleep expert with Hasbro Children’s Hospital had the school delay their normal start time, 8 a. . , to a new start time of 8:30 a. m. The study also had students, with parent permission, participate in an e-mail survey that would help to measure the sleep patterns and behaviors of the students. The study showed that students across all grades (9 to 12) had an average increase of 45 minutes of sleep per night. It also showed significant decreases in the students who felt that they â€Å"rarely/never† got enough sleep, which was 69% to 34%, and significant decreases in the students who felt that they â€Å"never† were satisfied with their sleep, which was 37% to 9%.The study also found other health related issues and how a later start time can decrease those problems. The school had a significant decrease from 66% to 45% of students who felt depressed. The health center at the school reported a drop from 15% to 5 % of fatigued-related complaints and a 56% decrease in requests for â€Å"rest passes. † The teachers also reported that there was a 36% reduction in absences or tardiness for the first class of the day. This Rhode Island study is one of many that have found many benefits to a later school start time for high school students (2010).If you agree that school start times should be later then you can, and should, get involved. There is a website call Start School Later (www. startschoollater. net) that is all about how to get schools to start later and why they should start later. Their mission is â€Å"Start School Later is a coalition of health professionals, sleep scientists, educators, parents, students, and other concerned citizens dedicated to increasing public awareness about the relationship between sleep and school hours and to ensuring school start times compatible with health, safety, education, and equity. They have an immediate goal of trying to present our national petition to legislate a minimum earliest start time to decision-makers in Washington, DC. The Start School Later group also has four long term goals: Advocate for legislation to ensure evidence-based school hours at the national, state and local level. Provide support and guidance to local communities working for later school start times. Serve as an information clearinghouse by collecting and consolidating information and data about school start times and efforts to change them.Build public understanding about the relationship between sleep, school start times, and physical, psychological, and educational well-being. To get involved with the Start School Later campaign, go to their website and sign the petition or donate to the cause. If you would like to become more knowledgeable about the effects of school start times on students and how later times are beneficial, you may also visit their page and read facts and statistics that researchers have found and read success stories of schools that have already started their schools at a later time.There are many positive opportunities that can occur from starting school later. Students have the opportunities to improve their grades, reduce their risk of depression, reduce their risk of sleep deprivation, and many other positive outcomes that will be a result of the extra amount of sleep students may get because of the later school start time. Many schools have switched to a later start time and have found many benefits for the students because of it. If this growing number of schools have already pushed back their start times and experienced the numerous benefits from it, then why hasn’t this become a standard on a national level yet?References â€Å"All About Sleep. † KidsHealth – the Web's most visited site about children's health. N. p. , n. d. Web. 31 Oct. 2012. . Build our school schedules on sleep. (2004, Feb 22). Lansing State Journal. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com. prox y. davenport. edu/docview/438903324? accountid=40195 Dubocovich, Margarita L. , et al. â€Å"The impact of school daily schedule on adolescent sleep. † Pediatrics June 2005: 1555+. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. Holohan, Ellin. â€Å"Earlier School Start Times Endanger Teen Drivers. † Teen Driving. Ed.Michele Siuda Jacques. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Early School Start Times May Raise Risk of Teen Car Crashes. † 2010. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. â€Å"Insufficient sleep and early school start times contribute to teenage health issues. † Chattanooga Times/Free Press [Chattanooga, TN] 30 Mar. 2012. General Reference Center GOLD. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. â€Å"Later School Start Times May Foster Better Students; High school pushed back start of day by 30 minutes, with good results. † Consumer Health News [English] 5 July 2010.Health Reference Center Academic. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. â€Å"L ater school start times may improve sleep in adolescents and decrease risk of auto accidents. †   NewsRx Health  (Jan 4, 2009):   164. Nursing Resource Center. Gale. Davenport University. 28 Oct. 2012 Moon, Mary Ann. â€Å"More data back value of later school start times. (CHILD/ADOLESCENT)(Report). †   Clinical Psychiatry News  38. 10   (Oct 2010):   23(1). Nursing Resource Center. Gale. Davenport University. 28 Oct. 2012 â€Å"New study confirms positive effects of delayed school start times. † Health & Medicine Weekly 19 July 2010: 1.Print. â€Å"Physician continues to push for later school start times. †Ã‚  Northwest Florida Daily News  [Fort Walton Beach, FL] 18 Nov. 2010. General Reference Center GOLD. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. â€Å"Research Finds High School Students May Get Better Grades If They Get More Sleep†¦ † Health and Wellness 1 (1999): n. pag. Davenport University. Web. 31 Oct. 2012. â€Å"Start School Later – About Us. †Ã‚  Start School Later – About Us. N. p. , n. d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. Teen sleep: Why is your teen so tired? – MayoClinic. com. † Mayo Clinic. N. p. , n. d. Web. 30 Oct. 2012.

Japanese Culture

Normally, a people’s culture as the total way of life is as a result of the historical, socio-cultural developments of that community. The case is not any different from that of the Japanese culture. This development is clearly exemplified by the fact that virtually all of Japan’s culture such as the Shinto shrines, the beliefs and practices surrounding the shrine and the construction works are based on the myths and legends that were associated with leaders such as Sugawara no Michizane. Similarly, some of the architecture and practices were based on the beliefs concerning the pantheon of gods that characterized the Japanese culture.According to the Japanese culture, mythology and folklore, the Sugawara no Michizane is the proper name for the Tenjin, the indigenous spiritual force that is also known as the personification and the embodiment of the ideal Japanese scholar, politician and poet. As another name for Sugawara no Michizane, Tenjin stands for both sky and deit y, with the same denotation of ‘the god of thunder. ’ The history and culture of the ancient Japanese have it that Sugawara no Michizane rose through the ranks in the government during the late epoch of the 9th century.Nevertheless, at the beginning of 10th century, Sugawara no Michizane succumbed to the plot of a rival group which had traces in the Fujiwara family. This resulted in his demotion and subsequent deposition to Kyushu. This development would later herald his lonesome death which paved way for drought, plague and widespread deaths among the populace in Daigo Empire. The princes of the empire would also fall herein. It is interesting to note that after this development, there were endless spates of lightning rainstorms and heavy deluge.The gravity of the matter is that the locals interpreted these developments as phenomenal and supernatural attestations of the spirits being displeased and irked by the exiling of Sugawara no Michizane. This led to the building and construction of the Shinto shrine located in Kyoto. This shrine was later called the Kitano Tenmangu. In this regard, the office and post of Sugawara no Michizane was thus restored posthumously, while any mentioning of his exiling was totally expunged from the records (Samovar, et al 2009) .As if all the above is not enough, Sugawara became deified as the Kami or the Tenjin-sama of scholarship and learning. It is against this backdrop that most of the Shinto shrines in Japan are dedicated to Sugawara no Michizane. Another important way in which the beliefs, superstitions and practices related to the gods affected the Japanese culture is found in the culture of burial and funeral rites. Particularly, the act is known to have been rejuvenated during the fourteenth generation of Haji family. At this time, Nomi no Sukune as the descendant of the god Amenohohi was the supreme leader.As of the ancient days, during the rein of Emperor Suinin, the funeral arrangements and burial arrang ements were primitive to the core, to an extent that the deceased would be buried alongside his kinsfolk. The burial of Empress Hibasuhime alongside the clay images of 300 potters at the behest of Nomi no Sukune in lieu of living retainers and relatives on the account of the need to have a just government was the first breakaway from the somewhat devious culture. This paved way to the assimilation of the culture of burying people with clay models, as opposed to the living.With time, the culture of burying the dead with the aforementioned accompaniments soon became faced out. Similarly, it is the family of the Sugawara no Michizane that the Confucian movement as a religious way of life. At the same time, Confucian scholars arose from this group to supply the Japanese culture with the culture and spirit of intellectualism. The Haji, together with the middle rank of the Sugawara formed the society’s middle rank, mainly serving the ancient Japanese culture as courtiers.Conversely , that the ancient Japanese culture has its genesis of the belief in the gods is well underscored by the fact that the Japanese culture has been believed to have emanated from the gods. In a closely related wavelength, it remains a fact that Furuhito gave the petition of concerning the Japanese family and history. It is against this backdrop that the Japanese family and culture is known to have been divided into three stages. The stages start with the legendary point or stages; the period of loyalty; and the period of the decline of the Yamato’s family status.All the offshoots of the family are said to have descended from the god Amenohohi. Amenohohi on the other hands is said to have come about as a result of the gods, Amaterasu and Susanoo coming together in a procreating contest (Lebra and Lebra 2006) . The legend has it that Amaterasu took off to the cave, for which Susanoo followed in hot pursuit after her. At this point, Amaterasu is said to have swallowed Susanooâ€⠄¢s sword, giving rise to three girls who were known to be the children of Susanoo.Afterwards, Susanoo swallowed Amaterasu’s jewelry, with the spitting out of five boys. These five boys are known to be the sons of the Amaterasu. Among the five sons is Amenohohi. The fact that this above account is seen to be ubiquitous to among the Japanese is well underscored by its appearance in Nihonshoki and Kojiki letters; albeit the letters exhibiting variations in details. The Kojiki source has the Amenohohi as the ancestor of the Izumo magistrate and the Haji family among five other local magistrates.Despite the scantiness of evidence that would authenticate the accuracy and originality of the Haji account. It is suggested that the Haji sources originated from the Izumo who served in the Yamato courts and also as supervisors of funeral arrangements and pottery making during the ancient times. Investigation into the political and social institutions of the Yamato courts before the 645 AD Taika Reforms yield better and more productive information on the Haji family (Varley, 2000) .Both historical and archaeological evidence point out that the affairs of the Yamato courts and Japan’s primordial social and economic structures are known to have dated as early as the pre-historic era. This standpoint is clearly underscored by the historians’ agreement and approach of dividing the tomb period together with all its markings of religious leadership from the middle tomb period as characterized by heavier military paraphernalia and symbols.Given the above developments, it is easier to see that the Japanese culture was totally fixed upon concepts that bordered on: common lineage and history, to which it was believed that all the concerned clans emanated from the gods [Amaterasu and Susanoo]; common culture and common traditions and religious beliefs. References Lebra, T. S. and Lebra, W. (2006). Japanese Culture and Behavior: Selected Readings. New York: Prent ice Hall. Samovar, L, et al. (2009). Communication between Cultures. New York: SAGE. Varley, H. P. (2000). Japanese Culture. New York: McGraw Hill.